The Charter Application

Revised Charter Application, February 22, 2006

Sections of the Charter Application are provided below.
Click on any section to read:

Introduction
Governance
Location
Students
Curriculum
Academic Goals
Graduation
Transportation
Student Governance
School Calendar
Parent Involvement
Information Outreach

 

3-22-06	Executive Summary -- pdf file

Introduction

Science and mathematics education in the United States, unlike other education curriculum areas, is not solely debated in the K-12 education industry. Recent congressionally initiated studies include expert panels representing higher education, workforce innovation, national security, long-range economic competitiveness, as well as the K-12 education industry. President Bush has announced a goal to encourage more American students to strive for higher levels of achievement in science and mathematics.

The question posed most recently as part of a federal task force was:

What actions should federal policy makers take to enhance the science and technology enterprise so the United States can successfully compete, prosper, and be secure in the global community of the 21st Century? What implementation strategy, with several concrete steps, could be used to implement each of those actions?

The Academy for Science and Design Charter School, evolving for more than a year, is reaching the State Board of Education just as federal initiatives to support science, mathematics, and engineering programs are being promoted. Economists and business leaders are increasingly bringing focus to international competitiveness. This is the opportune time for New Hampshire to develop its first public academy for sciences open to students statewide.

Designers of the Academy for Science and Design are aware that many of our public schools have high level programs in math and science. Still, there is room for a specialized middle/high school in science and math that creates a dynamic whole school environment and culture supportive of these academic values.

Specialized science high schools around the country have been initiated by acts of the legislature (Maine), governors and mayors (Colorado, Virginia, South Carolina), colleges (Idaho, Massachusetts), and public school systems themselves (e.g. New York, Virginia). Many outstanding science and mathematics schools have opened under the nation’s public chartered school program e.g. the Charter School of Wilmington, Delaware, High Tech High in San Diego, and the Denver Charter School for Science and Technology. Consistently these charter schools have corporate and philanthropic support. The schools are designed to provide more opportunities for students within cities or states--unique connections to cutting-edge science industries and higher education.

The Academy for Science and Design is a committed to linkages with New Hampshire colleges offering degree programs in science, mathematics, and engineering all of which are connected to local and global markets. Many New Hampshire colleges offer degree programs in traditional areas of biology, chemistry, physics and math but also in biotechnology, meteorology (Plymouth State); aviation, aeronautical and mechanical engineering, computer science (Daniel Webster College); chemical, civil, electrical, computer, environmental, and mechanical engineering; mathematics, statistics, and computer science (University of New Hampshire); electrical and mechanical engineering and technology (UNH-Manchester). A school highly integrated with these college programs will increase interest in New Hampshire’s post graduate offerings.

The Academy for Science and Design will be a school of choice for all middle/high school students in New Hampshire. Although open to students throughout the state, founders anticipate the majority of students attending from within an hour of the Concord to Nashua corridor. This area has in excess of 30,000 students in grades 7-12. With a maximum enrollment of 450 students, the charter school would draw less than 1.5% of the students in and around the corridor. The Academy for Science and Design will address several educational areas for New Hampshire:

1.	Provide a world class, well-rounded education emphasizing science,
	mathematics, engineering and design,
2.	Connect students to real world applications before entering college,
3.	Connect students to colleges in New Hampshire forming a natural path
	for graduates’ continuing education within the state,
4.	Provide a site for teacher training in critical shortage subjects of science
	and mathematics, expanding the pool of highly trained teachers in math and science.

Recent reports have created alarm that students attending above-average schools in the U.S. demonstrate less preparedness and advancement in international competitions. A recent news report suggested that “when students from forty countries are tested, the Americans place twenty-fifth.” One response is putting more emphasis on sustaining the interest many American students have in science and math as they move through their middle school years. Studies have pointed out that in math and science, our nation’s 4th graders are among the top students in the world but that this standing and level of interest and achievement is not sustained up and through grades 8-12. For these reasons, the Academy for Science and Design proposes to be a middle/high school, beginning with grade 7.

To demonstrate the level of discussion throughout our nation, the following excerpts are provided:

“U.S. science and mathematics education is lagging, and American students aren't being readied for "the gathering storm" of foreign competition”. (Committee on Prospering in the Global Economy of the 21st Century, created by the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering. Washington Post, October 13, 2005)

As the world becomes increasingly technologically driven, students need to be more deeply grounded in underlying science, mathematics, and engineering disciplines.” (Thomas Magnanti, Dean of the School of Engineering, MIT. Before the Committee on Education and the Workforce Subcommittee on 21st Century Competitiveness. May 19, 2005)

On September 16, 2005, IBM announced that it will help address the critical shortage of math and science teachers by leveraging the brains and backgrounds of some of its most experienced employees enabling them to become fully accredited teachers in their local communities upon electing to leave the company.” (www.ibm.com)

To understand the specific relevance of a science high school for New Hampshire, one must first look to our labor demographics. New Hampshire has the second highest percentage of high tech workers per capita in the United States. Core industries in New Hampshire include electronics, engineering, health services and management services. “One of the projected fastest growing sectors [in the New Hampshire economy] is professional, scientific, and technical services at a rated a 5.7%. All industry groups within this sector are growing in employment, led by management, scientific, and technical consulting services at 13.5 percent. This industry group is a prime employer of highly-skilled and highly-paid occupations. Other industry groups found in this sector include computer systems design; related, scientific research and development services; and accounting services. All of these industry groups are projected to grow faster than average” (Source: Economic Conditions in New Hampshire, January 2006).

Approximately 16 percent of all workers in the state are engaged in manufacturing. New Hampshire ranks 8th for in-migration of workers. Employers unable to find skilled workers in New Hampshire must seek personnel from other regions and countries. A New Hampshire school for science will increase interest and preparation for technologically sophisticated careers currently outsourced due to the lack of qualified New Hampshire applicants. Strong economic indicators support a world class science academy for New Hampshire students seeking more comprehensive and advanced science and engineering programs.

The Academy for Science and Design, first and foremost, will offer a full range of academic courses according to a solid philosophy of quality as defined by The National Research Council in its 1996 report: Analysis to Action. The Council provided these characteristics of good courses:

•	Are problem-driven
•	Emphasize critical thinking
•	Provide hands-on experience
•	Are relevant to topics students find in life
•	Offer both the process and concepts of a discipline
•	Show links between related disciplines
•	lace subject in a broader personal, historical,
	cultural, social, and political context
•	Provide intellectual tools needed to explore new
	ideas

If approved, the Academy for Science and Design will become a premiere science high school for New Hampshire. Most importantly, the academy will increase education opportunities for our youth.

We believe that The Academy for Science and Design is worthy of the state’s pilot project for state-authorized charter schools. The school model is designed to meet the needs and interests of the state as a whole, and is small enough in scale that it could be reproduced in other areas of the state or within our larger cities.

Section B: Governance and organizational structure and plan.

BOARD OF TRUSTEES

In accordance with RSA 194-B: §5, the Academy for Science and Design will be governed by an eleven-member Board of Trustees that has general supervisory control and authority over operations of the charter school. The Board has a statutory responsibility for reporting progress and achievement of the school’s stated goals. The Board will set its schedule for meetings, which will be no less than quarterly.

Trustee selection will be based on personal and professional background and a commitment to the school’s mission, support, and sustainability. To the extent possible, trustees will represent the diversity of stakeholders and contributors, as follows:

Two(2)	representing the business and engineering community,
Two(2)	representing the college and school industry,
Two(2)	with expertise in international perspectives and/or design
	applications,
Two(2)	founders or major contributors to the
	school,
Two(2)	parents,
One (1)	head of school.

The Board of Trustees can establish ex officio board members and/or advisors who will be non-voting.

OFFICERS
Initial officers shall include: chair, vice chair, secretary, and treasurer. Officers of the board shall be elected by majority vote of those present at the annual organizational meeting to be held in January of each year and shall serve until the next annual organizational meeting. If a replacement officer is needed, the term of office shall complete the unexpired term of the absent officer.

GOVERNANCE
The Board of Trustees will exercise its authority to set policy and make decisions that serve the mission and vision of the school. The Board will fulfill its duties as outlined in RSA 194-B: 5, II (a)-(h), with oversight and authority to render final decisions on matters pertaining to:

•	Approval and oversight of annual budget and fund-raising programs,
•	Hiring of professional personnel,
•	Setting policy,
•	Appointment of board advisory members or
	committees,
•	Delineation of educational priorities,
•	Oversight for the school’s growth plan,
•	Establishing professional salary and compensation program,
•	Reviewing and approving significant contracts,
	e.g., for facilities and benefit programs,
•	Reviewing and approving significant contracts, e.g., for facilities and
	benefit programs,
•	Appeals
•	Any other matters that are not administrative in nature and/or that are
	prescribed in statute or rule.

COMMITTEES
The Board of Trustees will have subcommittees and advisory committees as it deems necessary to pursue specific topics and report back to the board for action. On occasion, the Board may specifically vote to delegate a subcommittee to act. Initial subcommittees will be for board recruitment and finance (for focus on financial sustainability).

STEERING COMMITTEE, First-year:
During the school's first year of planning, a design and development team shall work on all facets of start-up and readiness:

Steering Committee Initiatives:

•	Develop and secure connections to colleges,
•	Develop and secure connections to businesses,
•	Develop and secure connections to donors,
•	Develop and secure connections to government,
•	Pursue a teacher certification contract,
•	Develop and secure connections to public schools,
•	Develop and employ a strategic marketing campaign,
•	Assist with facility and program decisions.

BOARD OF ADVISORS
The governing Board of Trustees may be augmented by a Board of Advisors, non-voting, who represent science industries, academia, research, international relations, student and faculty, legislators, and topics of interest to the board. This board will attempt to include industries and individuals collaborating with the school to advise on program quality, current research and developments, and business strategy.

Section D: General description and proposed or potential location of facilities to be used, if such information is available.

The location sought is along the Concord to Nashua corridor, where highway systems connect dozens of communities and a plethora of corporations and colleges exist. Given the charter's commitment to experiential learning, advancement, and connectivity to New Hampshire colleges, ideal facility locations would be 1) on a college campus where more advanced labs, courses, and library facilities are readily available, or 2) on a corporate complex where opportunities exist for business connections, apprenticeships, and research.

Founders are not required to have located a facility at time of charter application but have begun discussions as to options and requirements. Many start-up schools begin in one location while the board forms a long-range facilities committee and a development committee to address facility financing. The initial location will need to house 60 students in the first year and perhaps allow for growth of up to 120 in year 2. The long-term location will need to house 450 students. Once the charter is approved, the initial trustees will pursue, negotiate, and arrange facility options.

Public school systems have a long history of helping students locate residential options in far away locations. For students accepted from distances too far for daily travel, the school will have a role assisting families in locating living arrangements, if this is requested.

Section E: Maximum number, grade or age levels, and, as applicable, other information about pupils served.

ENROLLMENT
During its opening year, the charter school will accept 60 - 100 students, anticipated in grades 8-10, as the board decides. The exact capacity for enrollment in the 1st year is highly dependent on the space chosen and the ability to make needed renovations, as applicable. New, incoming classes will be added each year thereafter until the school is fully enrolled. The school will serve a maximum of 450 students in grades 7-12.

This state-sponsored charter school will be an open enrollment school of choice. The school will comply with provisions that govern application and lottery. As of December 2005, a provision of RSA 194-B restricts one district's enrollments to not more than 10% of the resident pupils in any grade in one school year without local school board approval.

On a space-available basis, the Board of Trustees will accept students funded in alternative ways for available slots, including tuition students from out of state, as is the custom of other public high schools.

INFORMATION ABOUT PUPILS SERVED
The mission of this middle/high charter school is clearly tied to international academic standards and teaching for mastery in areas of science and mathematics. The school is designed for students who seek a public school with uniquely challenging academic study in science, mathematics, and engineering. The academy will attempt to locate grants and supplemental funding for before school, after school, and summer support and reading programs and/or will have other methods of helping students have school readiness.

Students, who are apt to choose the Academy for Science and Design, will:

•	Seek the challenge of a school based on high
	standards and expectations of academic achievement,
•	Have interests in mathematics, science and/or
	engineering and the many careers that relate to these fields,
•	Welcome off-campus opportunities for learning,
	e.g. research and apprenticeships in different learning environments,
•	Desire a program where students assist in their own
	program design and educational goal-setting,
•	Welcome a personalized school environment
	designed to cultivate student interests and talents,
•	Choose a school community based on respect,
	citizenship, and personal responsibility.

The curriculum will support the school’s mission:

to create a world class, standards-setting middle/high school that specializes in science, mathematics, engineering, and design.

to graduate students with in-depth subject mastery; real world laboratory experiences; and local, national, and global understanding and applications.

to have a school recognized for outstanding academic program and for well-rounded students with the capacity for high achievement and leadership in college, career, and society

All courses will have standards and competencies that meet or exceed curriculum standards for New Hampshire public schools. For courses offered in areas of science, mathematics, and engineering where no state standards exist, the academy will develop standards. Students will have ongoing exposure to careers and challenges in science, mathematics, and engineering, through regular in-school seminars from scientists, engineers, and business personnel. The academic program of studies will be further augmented and enhanced by special subject immersion days, created and pursued by the interests and talents of students, faculty, and others.

By mid-10th grade, students will have had first-hand exposure to dozens of specialty fields in science and mathematics and will draw on this understanding to select an area of specialization for their senior thesis. The 5-credit science requirement will drive an active program of electives and independent study.

Essentially, during 11th- and 12th grade, students will have major and minor areas of science and mathematics specialization, aligned with specializations of New Hampshire businesses and colleges. Seven (7) areas of specialization are anticipated: aeronautics and aviation; chemistry and bio-medicine; mathematics and physics; space, astronomy, and astronautics; environment and sustainability; architecture and engineering (mechanical, civil, electrical); and computer science, system design, and simulation. Cross-pollination between specializations is anticipated.

Founders appreciate that a unique aspect of careers in science, math, and engineering is addressing problems for which there are no clear answers--where the goal is creating an answer that didn't exist before. The Academy for Science and Design will place emphasis on problem-solving, design, and application.

The list below represents anticipated special features of the curriculum followed by goals, assessments, and course requirements for graduation.

SPECIAL CURRICULUM FEATURES

Connection to New Hampshire Colleges:
The school will reach out to all New Hampshire colleges with programs in science, math, and engineering, whether this is the official college specialty or not. Personnel and students from other colleges will be invited guests to talk about their programs. The school will create a connection and post-graduate path to New Hampshire colleges.

Connection to New Hampshire Businesses & Corporations:
The school will reach out to New Hampshire businesses involved in science, mathematics, and engineering and hopefully involve them in the school, e.g. seminars, mentors....

Immersions/Seminars:
A regular program of seminars and short immersion courses will expose students’ career and subject specialties, enhancing student appreciation of the breadth of opportunities and challenges that are available to them.

Project Oreientation:
Projects and problem-solving will be a style of instruction, capturing and encouraging student pursuit of creative and structured thinking. Course study and assignments will largely be project-based.

Mentoring:
Each student will have a mentor, particularly related to the individual senior research topic and project. Time and staffing resources will be allocated as needed and the school will strive to have an active mentor program.

Curriculum::
The school will offer a high-standards college-preparatory program specializing in mathematics, applied lab sciences, and design. The course of study will include English/literature, social sciences/history, world language, reading/writing, health and personal fitness, and arts. The school will have generalized emphasis on applications, design, sustainability, relevance, and research/presentation.

Instruction:
Instructional philosophy will guide teaching style and school culture. The school’s instructional methods will allow teachers creativity but also stress collaboration among and between faculty. Project-based learning, case studies, real-world applications, hands-on projects, and self-selected apprenticeships and research projects will emphasize and develop student interest and talent. The Academy of Science and Design instructional methods will be based on effective schools research –understanding how young people learn best—and the achievement results.

Students will have a role in planning their educational program. Teachers will both present information and facilitate student pursuit of independent learning.

Technology:
The Academy for Science and Design will offer specific elective classes in computer science and graphic design as well as integrating state-of-the-art information and communication technology. The school will strive to provide students access to current technology.

Arts:
Course and seminar offerings will expand student appreciation of culture, design, and artistic expression. Art will connect to classroom learning through exhibits, performances, concerts, and residencies taking place in local museums, colleges, galleries, theatres and the school.

Active Engagement:
Students will be actively engaged in learning and have experiences that require different kinds of thinking. Their assignments will include written analysis of their own and others’ work, reflective journals, quantitative and qualitative studies, products, and oral presentations.

Sharing Community:
Students will be expected to participate in public exhibitions, performances, competitions, and demonstrations, as individuals or in collaboration with others. The art of public speaking and presentation will be included in the school’s curriculum.

A Culture of Mutual Support:
Students will learn to notice and recognize their own accomplishments and the accomplishments of others. As students progress through their high school studies, web based portfolios will be developed that include special research, projects, and internships. Manners, appreciation of diversity and good citizenship will not allow for harassment, hazing, or compromising anyone’s opportunity or welfare.

Focus on Student Health, Nutrition, and Well-Being:
Concern for student health, nutrition, and well-being will assure that meals, snacks, breaks, exercise, and seminars will guide program decisions in these areas. Exercise will be incorporated into each day.

Course Accomplishment:
Student learning will be measured by the mastery of standards, not seat time. This shift requires teachers to know the standards for their courses, plan instructional time around goals and objectives, and track academic progress for each student. The emphasis of the academy will be on learning.

Section G: Academic and other learning goals and objectives II.

 

•	All academic courses will have succinctly stated
	learning goals and objectives,
•	Measures of progress will demonstrate >75% of students proficient or
	advanced in science and mathematics from year to year,
•	Standardized assessments will demonstrate that >75% students are
	proficient or advanced in reading,
•	>90% of students will demonstrate mastery of the content of Algebra I and
•	100% of students will have immersion experience opportunities in science,
	with specialists, industry leaders and entrepreneurs,
•	100% of Students will maintain digital portfolios,
•	100% of students graduating will have a post-graduation plan,
•	90% of students will plan to attend a college,
•	Females and unrepresented minorities of both genders will pursue
	post-graduate programs that make use of their accomplishments in science and mathematics in numbers that exceed state norms,
•	100% of our students’ parents or guardians will make a commitment
	to be involved with our school, 100% students will have given
	public presentations,
•	All students will have contributed to a respectful
•	community environment.

Section I: Graduation requirements.
The Academy for Science and Design will have specific graduation requirements, listed below. The school's policies for graduate will consider unique circumstances, e.g. students are seeking early college admission. New Hampshire's 2005 guidelines defining an equitable education are subsumed and addressed under these requirements.

The school’s definition of “credit” shall be completion of a year-long program with demonstrated content mastery. The school will accommodate students whose grasp of content requires more or less than one year.

Graduation requirements were researched to correspond to requirements for acceptance at colleges known for outstanding programs in science, math, and engineering. The school will respond to any new college requirements that emerge over time.

•	Applied Mathematics through Calculus (4 credits),
•	Applied Laboratory Science & Engineering (5
	credits; 4 required plus 1 credit elective):
	•	Biological Science (1 credit),
	•	Chemistry (1 credit),
	•	Physics (1 credit),
	•	Engineering (1 credit),
	•	Potential elective advanced science courses (0.5 credit):
		Such as; advanced electronics, aeronautics, anatomy, anthropology, archaeology, aviation, biochemistry, botany, computational sciences, computer programming, design technology, environmental science, ethics in science, forensic science, forestry, history of science, marine biology, natural history, numerical modeling, oceanography, physiology, population biology, renewable energy, space science, sustainable agricultural science, transportation sciences
•	Computer Science (0.5 credit),
•	World Language and Cultural Studies (3 credits),
•	English/Literature (4 credits),
•	Social Science/History (2 credits); law, world and
	US history,
•	business/marketing, political science, geography,
•	Visual and Performing Arts (1 credit); dance,
	drama/theater, music or visual art
•	Health and Fitness Personal Program (2 credits),
•	Electives (2 credits),
•	Stewardship Project (0.5 credits),
•	Junior Apprenticeship/Mentorship project
	(0.5 credits),
•	Senior Research Project (0.5 credit).

Section L: Pupil transportation plan, including reasonable provision from the charter schools own resources for transportation of pupils residing outside the district in which the charter school is physically located.

Charter school students will have access to transportation to the class program only if they reside in the district where the charter school is located. The charter school will comply with charter law provisions that govern student transportation under Section 194-B: 2, which states:

We foresee students applying from many different school districts; this is the pattern with science academies in other small city areas. One goal of charter school personnel will be to assist parents and students who wish to coordinate personal transportation. For students in secondary district special education programs, the charter school will assist with transportation arrangements, e.g., identifying shared routes.

The transportation section of the charter school application (B: 3, II (l)) was written in 1995 for district-authorized charter schools receiving approximately 80% of the sending district's per pupil cost. Under these guidelines, charter school funding would approximate $9,000 per student in 2006. It was considered reasonable at that time to spend some of the school's funding resources assisting students from outside the district with transportation. Under the state-authorization model of 2003, a reasonable provision is to comply with requirements of B: 2, stated above.

Section P: Philosophy of student governance and discipline, and age-appropriate due process procedures to be used for disciplinary matters including suspension and expulsion.

The Academy for Science and Design is committed to providing students opportunities for leadership and citizenship. A program of student government will serve as the voice of the student body and this shall be integral to the school’s culture. The purpose of student governance will include working for the welfare of the school and students.

The school is committed to a respectful and safe environment for all. Accordingly, student governance philosophy involves high expectations for respectful and responsible behavior on and off campus and logical consequences when this is not the case. Specific school sanctions for off-campus behavior relate to school-related functions, when representing the school, or as the school might further define in its guidelines and policies. The school will have clear expectations for responsible academic and interpersonal student behavior and an honor system. The school will not allow hazing, harassment, unsafe behavior, disrespect, or unlawful behavior.

In addition to clear and fair guidelines for unacceptable and dangerous behavior, the school will strive to equally provide opportunities for positive recognition and award. The school recognizes that education includes evolving maturity and will provide programs, such as mediation, to teach skills. Situations requiring interventions not available at the school will be discussed and handled with parents.

The Board of Trustees will adopt policies that conform to and support state law in areas of harassment, fighting, drugs, alcohol, smoking, weapons, and other dangerous behavior. A student may be suspended or expelled in accordance with statute and policy.

With a goal of helping students develop maturity and responsibility, the school will provide fair and age appropriate due process in administering student discipline and will comply with current suspension and expulsion provisions in RSA 193:13 (Suspension and Expulsion of Pupils). A pupil may withdraw from a charter school based on criteria determined by the Board of Trustees consistent with the advice of the principal and teachers in conformance with RSA 193:13. No public school shall be obligated to enroll an expelled pupil.

COMMITMENT TO MEDIATION AND DISPUTE RESOLUTION
Every student and staff member will be trained in mediation techniques, which will be the intervention of choice for resolving interpersonal conflicts within the school community.

Section S: School calendar arrangement and the number and duration of days pupils are to be served pursuant to RSA 194-B. 8, II.

Annually, the Board of Trustees will approve a school calendar that conforms to RSA 194-B: 8, II. including any existing provisions for exception that may be pursued. Major holidays will follow the school calendar of the district in which the school is based.

The Academy for Science and Design has several signature features that have bearing on how school days are used, e.g. opportunity for college courses which may be on a different calendar schedule and mastery learning, which allows students to finish courses when content is mastered instead of when a number of seated hours are completed.

All school policy on time use and calendar will be in conformance with laws that apply.

Section V: Philosophy of parent involvement and related plans and procedures.

Parent involvement is a core philosophical commitment of this school. Moreover, the broadest and most inclusive definition of ‘parent’ will assure a student support system embraced by faculty, members of the student body, and non-family mentors.

The school will have a well-defined parent involvement initiative. Regular parent/student/school communications can be expected. Parents can expect clear standards, high expectations, and a commitment to their student’s success. The school will have expectation for parents that include committing to the school’s program and assuring home support for student studies.

Not all students have parents to share in their achievement interests. A signature feature of this charter school will be a vibrant cadre of business, parent, teacher, researcher, and community members volunteering to be mentors, providing guidance specific to student research programs, interests, and post-graduate decision-making.

Section W: A plan to develop and disseminate information to assist parents and pupils with decision-making about their choice of school.

The charter school founders are mindful of the extensive outreach that will be needed to explain this charter school to public school districts throughout the state. This effort will require development of materials, seminars, presentations, answers to questions, collaboration with willing state associations for principals and administrators, and review of technical issues such a dual enrollment, NHIAA guidelines, cooperative agreements, special education, transportation and other provisions that may arise for students who or districts who request participation in the school's offerings.

To assure parents and students have adequate information to assist them in their decision-making, an extensive public relations effort will be initiated for parents and potential students.

The development program that will be sponsored primarily with philanthropic funding includes developing high quality materials for dissemination of information. During the initial months of planning, information will be disseminated through bulletins, advisories, and postings on informational websites.